Xanthine oxidase activity associated with arterial blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Recent evidence in vivo indicates that spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) exhibit an increase in oxyradical production in and around microvascular endothelium. This study is aimed to examine whether xanthine oxidase plays a role in overproduction of oxidants and thereby may contribute to hypertensive states as a consequence of the increasing microvascular tone. The xanthine oxidase activity in SHR was inhibited by dietary supplement of tungsten (0.7 g/kg) that depletes molybdenum as a cofactor for the enzyme activity as well as by administration of (−)BOF4272 [(−)-8-(3-methoxy-4-phenylsulfinylphenyl)pyrazolo(1,5-α)-1,3,5-triazine-4-monohydrate], a synthetic inhibitor of the enzyme. The characteristic elevation of mean arterial pressure in SHR was normalized by the tungsten diet, whereas Wistar Koto (WKY) rats displayed no significant alteration in the pressure. Multifunctional intravital videomicroscopy in mesentery microvessels with hydroethidine, an oxidant-sensitive fluoroprobe, showed that SHR endothelium exhibited overproduction of oxyradicals that coincided with the elevated arteriolar tone as compared with WKY rats. The tungsten diet significantly repressed these changes toward the levels observed in WKY rats. The activity of oxyradical-producing form of xanthine oxidase in the mesenteric tissue of SHR was ≈3-fold greater than that of WKY rats, and pretreatment with the tungsten diet eliminated detectable levels of the enzyme activity. The inhibitory effects of the tungsten diet on the increasing blood pressure and arteriolar tone in SHR were also reproducible by administration of (−)BOF4272. These results suggest that xanthine oxidase accounts for a putative source of oxyradical generation that is associated with an increasing arteriolar tone in this form of hypertension.

Crystal structures of bovine milk xanthine dehydrogenase and xanthine oxidase: Structure-based mechanism of conversion

Mammalian xanthine oxidoreductases, which catalyze the last two steps in the formation of urate, are synthesized as the dehydrogenase form xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) but can be readily converted to the oxidase form xanthine oxidase (XO) by oxidation of sulfhydryl residues or by proteolysis. Here, we present the crystal structure of the dimeric (Mr, 290,000) bovine milk XDH at 2.1-Å resolution and XO at 2.5-Å resolution and describe the major changes that occur on the proteolytic transformation of XDH to the XO form. Each molecule is composed of an N-terminal 20-kDa domain containing two iron sulfur centers, a central 40-kDa flavin adenine dinucleotide domain, and a C-terminal 85-kDa molybdopterin-binding domain with the four redox centers aligned in an almost linear fashion. Cleavage of surface-exposed loops of XDH causes major structural rearrangement of another loop close to the flavin ring (Gln 423—Lys 433). This movement partially blocks access of the NAD substrate to the flavin adenine dinucleotide cofactor and changes the electrostatic environment of the active site, reflecting the switch of substrate specificity observed for the two forms of this enzyme.

A structure-based catalytic mechanism for the xanthine oxidase family of molybdenum enzymes.

The crystal structure of the xanthine oxidase-related molybdenum-iron protein aldehyde oxido-reductase from the sulfate reducing anaerobic Gram-negative bacterium Desulfovibrio gigas (Mop) was analyzed in its desulfo-, sulfo-, oxidized, reduced, and alcohol-bound forms at 1.8-A resolution. In the sulfo-form the molybdenum molybdopterin cytosine dinucleotide cofactor has a dithiolene-bound fac-[Mo, = O, = S, ---(OH2)] substructure. Bound inhibitory isopropanol in the inner compartment of the substrate binding tunnel is a model for the Michaelis complex of the reaction with aldehydes (H-C = O,-R). The reaction is proposed to proceed by transfer of the molybdenum-bound water molecule as OH- after proton transfer to Glu-869 to the carbonyl carbon of the substrate in concert with hydride transfer to the sulfido group to generate [MoIV, = O, -SH, ---(O-C = O, -R)). Dissociation of the carboxylic acid product may be facilitated by transient binding of Glu-869 to the molybdenum. The metal-bound water is replenished from a chain of internal water molecules. A second alcohol binding site in the spacious outer compartment may cause the strong substrate inhibition observed. This compartment is the putative binding site of large inhibitors of xanthine oxidase.

Circulating plasma xanthine oxidase contributes to vascular dysfunction in hypercholesterolemic rabbits.

Reactive oxygen species play a central role in vascular inflammation and atherogenesis, with enhanced superoxide (O2.-) production contributing significantly to impairment of nitric oxide (.NO)-dependent relaxation of vessels from cholesterol-fed rabbits. We investigated potential sources of O2.- production, which contribute to this loss of endothelium-dependent vascular responses. The vasorelaxation elicited by acetylcholine (ACh) in phenylephrine-contracted, aortic ring segments was impaired by cholesterol feeding. Pretreatment of aortic vessels with either heparin, which competes with xanthine oxidase (XO) for binding to sulfated glycosaminoglycans, or the XO inhibitor allopurinol resulted in a partial restoration (36-40% at 1 muM ACh) of ACh-dependent relaxation. Furthermore, O2.(-)-dependent lucigenin chemiluminescence, measured in intact ring segments from hypercholesterolemic rabbits, was decreased by addition of heparin, allopurinol or a chimeric, heparin-binding superoxide dismutase. XO activity was elevated more than two-fold in plasma of hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Incubation of vascular rings from rabbits on a normal diet with purified XO (10 milliunits/ml) also impaired .NO-dependent relaxation but only in the presence of purine substrate. As with vessels from hypercholesterolemic rabbits, this effect was prevented by heparin and allopurinol treatment. We hypothesize that increases in plasma cholesterol induce the release of XO into the circulation, where it binds to endothelial cell glycosaminoglycans. Only in hypercholesterolemic vessels is sufficient substrate available to sustain the production of O2.- and impair NO-dependent vasorelaxation. Chronically, the continued production of peroxynitrite, (ONOO-) which the simultaneous generation of NO and O2.- implies, may irreversibly impair vessel function.

Stimulation of renin secretion by nitric oxide is mediated by phosphodiesterase 3

This study aimed to characterize the cellular pathways along which nitric oxide (NO) stimulates renin secretion from the kidney. Using the isolated perfused rat kidney model we found that renin secretion stimulated 4- to 8-fold by low perfusion pressure (40 mmHg), by macula densa inhibition (100 μmol/liter of bumetanide), and by adenylate cyclase activation (3 nmol/liter of isoproterenol) was markedly attenuated by the NO synthase inhibitor nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-Name) (1 mM) and that the inhibition by l-Name was compensated by the NO-donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP) (10 μmol/liter). Similarly, inhibition of cAMP degradation by blockade of phosphodiesterase 1 (PDE-1) (20 μmol/liter of 8-methoxymethyl-1-methyl-3-(2-methylpropyl)xanthine) or of PDE-4 (20 μmol/liter of rolipram) caused a 3- to 4-fold stimulation of renin secretion that was attenuated by l-Name and that was even overcompensated by sodium nitroprusside. Inhibition of PDE-3 by 20 μmol/liter of milrinone or by 200 nmol/liter of trequinsin caused a 5- to 6-fold stimulation of renin secretion that was slightly enhanced by NO synthase inhibition and moderately attenuated by NO donation. Because PDE-3 is a cGMP-inhibited cAMP-PDE the role of endogenous cGMP for the effects of NO was examined by the use of the specific guanylate cyclase inhibitor 1-H-(1,2,4)oxodiazolo(4,3a)quinoxalin-1-one (20 μmol). In the presence of 1H-[1,2,4]oxodiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one the effect of NO on renin secretion was abolished, whereas PDE-3 inhibitors exerted their normal effects. These findings suggest that PDE-3 plays a major role for the cAMP control of renin secretion. Our findings are compatible with the idea that the stimulatory effects of endogenous and exogenous NO on renin secretion are mediated by a cGMP-induced inhibition of cAMP degradation.

Caspase-1 is activated in neural cells and tissue with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-associated mutations in copper-zinc superoxide dismutase

The mechanism by which mutations in the superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene cause motor neuron degeneration in familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is unknown. Recent reports that neuronal death in SOD1-familial ALS is apoptotic have not documented activation of cell death genes. We present evidence that the enzyme caspase-1 is activated in neurons expressing mutant SOD1 protein. Proteolytic processing characteristic of caspase-1 activation is seen both in spinal cords of transgenic ALS mice and neurally differentiated neuroblastoma (line N2a) cells with SOD1 mutations. This activation of caspase-1 is enhanced by oxidative challenge (xanthine/xanthine oxidase), which triggers cleavage and secretion of the interleukin 1β converting enzyme substrate, pro-interleukin 1β, and induces apoptosis. This N2a culture system should be an instructive in vitro model for further investigation of the proapoptotic properties of mutant SOD1.

Hydrogen peroxide-mediated neuronal cell death induced by an endogenous neurotoxin, 3-hydroxykynurenine.

3-Hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) is a tryptophan metabolite whose level in the brain is markedly elevated under several pathological conditions, including Huntington disease and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Here we demonstrate that micromolar concentrations (1-100 microM) of 3-HK cause cell death in primary neuronal cultures prepared from rat striatum. The neurotoxicity of 3-HK was blocked by catalase and desferrioxamine but not by superoxide dismutase, indicating that the generation of hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical is involved in the toxicity. Measurement of peroxide levels revealed that 3-HK caused intracellular accumulation of peroxide, which was largely attenuated by application of catalase. The peroxide accumulation and cell death caused by 1-10 microM 3-HK were also blocked by pretreatment with allopurinol or oxypurinol, suggesting that endogenous xanthine oxidase activity is involved in exacerbation of 3-HK neurotoxicity. Furthermore, NADPH diaphorase-containing neurons were spared from toxicity of these concentrations of 3-HK, a finding reminiscent of the pathological characteristics of several neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington disease. These results suggest that 3-HK at pathologically relevant concentrations renders neuronal cells subject to oxidative stress leading to cell death, and therefore that this endogenous compound should be regarded as an important factor in pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders.

Glutathione-mediated destabilization in vitro of [2Fe-2S] centers in the SoxR regulatory protein.

SoxR is a transcription factor that governs a global defense against the oxidative stress caused by nitric oxide or excess superoxide in Escherichia coli. SoxR is a homodimer containing a pair of [2Fe-2S] clusters essential for its transcriptional activity, and changes in the stability of these metal centers could contribute to the activation or inactivation of SoxR in vivo. Herein we show that reduced glutathione (GSH) in aerobic solution disrupts the SoxR [2Fe-2S] clusters, releasing Fe from the protein and eliminating SoxR transcriptional activity. This disassembly process evidently involves oxygen-derived free radicals. The loss of [2Fe-2S] clusters does not occur in anaerobic solution and is blocked in aerobic solution by the addition of superoxide dismutase and catalase. Although H2O2 or xanthine oxidase and hypoxanthine (to generate superoxide) were insufficient on their own to cause [2Fe-2S] cluster loss, they did accelerate the rate of disassembly after GSH addition. Oxidized GSH alone was ineffective in disrupting the clusters, but the rate of [2Fe-2S] cluster disassembly was maximal when reduced and oxidized GSH were present at a ratio of approximately 1:3, which suggests the critical involvement of a GSH-based free radical in the disassembly process. Such a reaction might occur in vivo: we found that the induction by paraquat of SoxR-dependent soxS transcription was much higher in a GSH-deficient E. coli strain than in its GSH-containing parent. The results imply that GSH may play a significant role during the deactivation process of SoxR in vivo. Ironically, superoxide production seems both to activate SoxR and, in the GSH-dependent disassembly process, to switch off this transcription factor.

Hypoxia enhances stimulus-dependent induction of E-selectin on aortic endothelial cells.

In many diseases, tissue hypoxia occurs in conjunction with other inflammatory processes. Since previous studies have demonstrated a role for leukocytes in ischemia/reperfusion injury, we hypothesized that endothelial hypoxia may "superinduce" expression of an important leukocyte adhesion molecule, E-selectin (ELAM-1, CD62E). Bovine aortic endothelial monolayers were exposed to hypoxia in the presence or absence of tumor-necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Cell surface E-selectin was quantitated by whole cell ELISA or by immunoprecipitation using polyclonal anti-E-selectin sera. Endothelial mRNA levels were assessed using ribonuclease protection assays. Hypoxia alone did not induce endothelial E-selectin expression. However, enhanced induction of E-selectin was observed with the combination of hypoxia and TNF-alpha (270% increase over normoxia and TNF-alpha) or hypoxia and LPS (190% increase over normoxia and LPS). These studies revealed that a mechanism for such enhancement may be hypoxia-elicited decrements in endothelial intracellular levels of cAMP (<50% compared with normoxia). Addition of forskolin and isobutyl-methyl-xanthine during hypoxia resulted in reversal of cAMP decreases and a loss of enhanced E-selectin surface expression with the combination of TNF-alpha and hypoxia. We conclude that endothelial hypoxia may provide a novel signal for superinduction of E-selectin during states of inflammation.

Promotion of sleep mediated by the A2a-adenosine receptor and possible involvement of this receptor in the sleep induced by prostaglandin D2 in rats.

A 6-hr continuous infusion of 2-[p-(2-carboxyethyl)phenylethylamino]-5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenos ine (CGS21680), a selective A2a-adenosine agonist, into the subarachnoid space underlying the ventral surface region of the rostral basal forebrain, which has been defined as the prostaglandin (PG) D2-sensitive sleep-promoting zone, at rates of 0.02, 0.2, 2.0, and 12 pmol/min increased slow-wave sleep (SWS) and paradoxical sleep (PS) in a dose-dependent manner up to 183% and 202% of their respective baseline levels. The increments produced by the infusion of CGS21680 at 0.2 and 2.0 pmol/min were totally diminished when the rats had been pretreated with an i.p. injection of (E)-1,3-dipropyl-7-methyl-8-(3,4-dimethoxystyryl)xanthine (KF17837; 30 mg/kg of body weight), a selective A2-adenosine antagonist. In contrast, the infusion of N6-cyclohexyladenosine (CHA), a selective A1-adenosine agonist, at 2 pmol/min significantly suppressed SWS before causing an increase in SWS, and a decrease in PS was also markedly visible. Essentially the same effects of CGS21680 and CHA were observed when these compounds were administered to the parenchymal region of the rostral basal forebrain through chronically implanted microdialysis probes. Thus, we clearly showed that stimulation of A2a-adenosine receptors in the rostral basal forebrain promotes SWS and PS. Furthermore, i.p. injections of KF17837 at 30 and 100 mg/kg of body weight dose-dependently attenuated the magnitude of the SWS increase produced by the infusion of PGD2 into the subarachnoid space of the sleep-promoting zone, thus indicating that the A2a-adenosine receptors are crucial in the sleep-promoting process triggered by PGD2.

Pathogenesis of influenza virus-induced pneumonia: involvement of both nitric oxide and oxygen radicals.

The role of nitric oxide (NO) in the pathogenesis of influenza virus-induced pneumonia in mice was investigated. Experimental influenza virus pneumonia was produced with influenza virus A/Kumamoto/Y5/67(H2N2). Both the enzyme activity of NO synthase (NOS) and mRNA expression of the inducible NOS were greatly increased in the mouse lungs; increases were mediated by interferon gamma. Excessive production of NO in the virus-infected lung was studied further by using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. In vivo spin trapping with dithiocarbamate-iron complexes indicated that a significant amount of NO was generated in the virus-infected lung. Furthermore, an NO-hemoglobin ESR signal appeared in the virus-infected lung, and formation of NO-hemoglobin was significantly increased by treatment with superoxide dismutase and was inhibited by N(omega)-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA) administration. Immunohistochemistry with a specific anti-nitrotyrosine antibody showed intense staining of alveolar phagocytic cells such as macrophages and neutrophils and of intraalveolar exudate in the virus-infected lung. These results strongly suggest formation of peroxynitrite in the lung through the reaction of NO with O2-, which is generated by alveolar phagocytic cells and xanthine oxidase. In addition, administration of L-NMMA resulted in significant improvement in the survival rate of virus-infected mice without appreciable suppression of their antiviral defenses. On the basis of these data, we conclude that NO together with O2- which forms more reactive peroxynitrite may be the most important pathogenic factors in influenza virus-induced pneumonia in mice.

Susceptibility of cloned K+ channels to reactive oxygen species.

Free radical-induced oxidant stress has been implicated in a number of physiological and pathophysiological states including ischemia and reperfusion-induced dysrhythmia in the heart, apoptosis of T lymphocytes, phagocytosis, and neurodegeneration. We have studied the effects of oxidant stress on the native K+ channel from T lymphocytes and on K+ channels cloned from cardiac, brain, and T-lymphocyte cells and expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The activity of three Shaker K+ channels (Kv1.3, Kv1.4, and Kv1.5), one Shaw channel (Kv3.4), and one inward rectifier K+ channel (IRK3) was drastically inhibited by photoactivation of rose bengal, a classical generator of reactive oxygen species. Other channel types (such as Shaker K+ channel Kv1.2, Shab channels Kv2.1 and Kv2.2, Shal channel Kv4.1, inward rectifiers IRK1 and ROMK1, and hIsK) were completely resistant to this treatment. On the other hand tert-butyl hydroperoxide, another generator of reactive oxygen species, removed the fast inactivation processes of Kv1.4 and Kv3.4 but did not alter other channels. Xanthine/xanthine oxidase system had no effect on all channels studied. Thus, we show that different types of K+ channels are differently modified by reactive oxygen species, an observation that might be of importance in disease states.